Together with scepticism and hedonism, stoicism exerted a strong influence on Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592). About one third of his “Essays” convey the doctrines of stoicism. I am referring to the doctrines put forward by Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius in the first century of our era. Seneca produced a large output in terms of philosophical writings, but Epictetus was closer to Montaigne’s heart because of his concise formulations. Where Seneca wrote a whole letter (about twenty pages), Epictetus wrote a few lines. Epictetus (50-135 AD) formulated his ideas in compelling, elegant sentences, providing ideal quotations for Montaigne’s essays. Nonetheless, Epictetus’ thoughts must have been edited by his disciples, the ones that actually put them in writing. According to the tradition, Epictetus had been born a slave in Hierapolis, Phrygia, a Greek settlement that is located in today’s Turkey. In his youth, Epictetus was brought to Rome. His master, named Epaphroditus, occupied a high position in the Roman imperial administration under Nero. Epictetus was allowed to learn to read, so that he could help in his master’s business. Over the years, he delivered such good help that Epaphroditus released him from slavery. After becoming a freedman, Epictetus taught philosophy in Rome by using a hands-on approach. He recommends living in accordance with nature and reason, focusing on actions that are within our control, and accepting the constraints we cannot change. When Emperor Domitian expelled philosophers from Rome in the year 89 AD, Epictetus relocated to Nicopolis in Greece. He was around forty years old at that time. In the next decade, he taught hundreds of students, including the future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Montaigne was very familiar with the writings of Epictetus, that is, with the records written by Arrian, one of Epictetus’ students at the end of the first century of our era. The two compilations of Epictetus’ philosophy are known as “The Discourses” and “The Enchiridion.” The latter is shorter, much more concise. In his essays, Montaigne quoted liberally from both. Montaigne takes over the two main ideas contained in “The Discourses” and “The Enchiridion.” Those two ideas constitute the essence of ancient stoicism. Montaigne applies those ideas to various areas of human activity, giving extensive examples. From “The Discourses,” Montaigne is referring to Epictetus’ key conclusion, namely, that happiness depends more on one’s attitude than on external circumstances. Here is the link to the original article: https://johnvespasian.com/stoicism-michel-de-montaigne-and-classical-philosophy/

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