We examine the Dunning-Kruger effect, a cognitive bias where individuals with low competence in a given area overestimate their abilities. The first text, a scientific paper, critiques the typical methods for testing the Dunning-Kruger effect, arguing that the observed results are largely due to statistical artefacts, particularly the "better-than-average" effect and regression to the mean. They propose alternative, more robust statistical methods to test the effect. The second text, a letter to the editor of a medical journal, further explores the limitations of self-assessment, highlighting the influence of factors like social desirability and motivational biases. The final text is a research article that examines the Dunning-Kruger effect in the context of young adults, exploring how it relates to personality traits such as narcissism and general self-efficacy, and decision-making styles.

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